1. Animal Structures
a. Embryonic tissue
b. Epithelial tissue
c. Muscle tissue
d. Neural Networks
e. Amplifier Network
f. Fat tissue
g. Organ
2. Plant Structure
a. Meristem Network
b. Adult Network
c. Root
d. Stem
e. Leaf
3. Growth And Development
a. Growth In Plants
b. Factors Affecting Growth And Development
c. Growth In Animals
CHAPTER I. . STRUCTURE OF ANIMAL
Viewed in terms of number of cells, animals can be divided into protozoa (single-celled animals) and abundant metazoan (multicellular animals). In multicellular animals (including humans), a collection of cells Yag has the same form and function will form a network, different networks will combine to form organs, organs of the body will come together to form organ systems, body organ systems will eventually coalesce to form organisms (animal). CELL NETWORK ORGAN ORGAN SYSTEM ORGANISMS
1.1. Embryonic tissue
Embryonic tissue, is a network of zygote cell division results. Embryonic tissues have specialized into 3 layers of tissue (Triploblastik), the outer layer, ectoderm, the middle layer, mesoderm and entoderm layer in.
Examples of animal Triploblastik: Annelid, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Chordata.
Or into 2 layers of tissue (diploblastik), ectoderm and endoderm layers.
Examples of animal diploblastik: Coelenterata.
The layers above the network will then develop into the organs of the body of an animal.
1.2. Epithelial tissue
Epithelial tissue is the tissue that lines the surface of the body, organ or animal body surface channel.
Based on the shape and structure of epithelial tissue is divided into:
1. Flat epithelial
a. Flat epithelial layer, eg in blood vessels, alveolar, lymph vessels, kidney glomerulus.
b. Epithelium of many layers, eg on the skin, oral cavity, vagina.
2. Epithelial Cube
a. Epithelial layer of the cube, eg in the thyroid gland, ovarian surface.
b. Epithelium of many layers of the cube, eg on the channel the oil glands and sweat glands in the skin.
Fig. 1. Epithelial layer of the cube, 2. Flat epithelial layer, 3. Connective tissue
(Taken from a layer of pig embryo allantois and amnion).
3. Cylindrical epithelium a. Cylindrical epithelial layer, eg in the stomach, intestine flakes, gall bladder, upper respiratory tract.
b. Cylindrical epithelium of many layers, eg salivary gland tract, the urethra.
c. Epithelium of many layers of quasi-cylindrical / cylindrical ciliated epithelium Example: the trachea, nasal cavity
Fig. Many ciliated cylindrical epithelial layer.
(Visible cilia in the middle, taken from eaofagus fetus).
4. Transitional epithelium Is a form of many layers of epithelial cells can not be classified by shape. If their network bubble shape change. Example: in the bladder.
Fig 3. Bladder transitional epithelium of dogs.
A: empty bladder
Fig 3. Bladder transitional epithelium of dogs.
B: bladder contains urine
As a network that covers the entire outer surface and in the body of every organism, epithelial tissue has the following functions 1. As a protective
2. As the gland
3. As a recipient of excitatory
4. As a traffic agent turnover
1.3. Muscle tissue
Muscle tissue is composed of muscle cells whose function is to move the organs of the body. Ability was due to muscle tissue can contract. Muscle contraction to take place because the protein molecules that build muscle cells to elongate and shorten.
Muscle tissue can be differentiated into 3 types:
1. Muscle tissue Polos
Smooth muscle tissue has fibers (fibrils) are homogeneous, so that when observed under a microscope looks plain or striped. Smooth muscle reflexively contracts and under the influence of the autonomic nervous. When smooth muscle is stimulated, the reaction is slow. Smooth muscle found in the digestive tract, blood vessel wall, the respiratory tract.
Fig. Muscle Structure Polos
2. Muscle tissue Lurik Another name is skeletal muscle tissue because most of these types of muscle attached to the frame tubule. Contraction according to our will and under the influence of nerve aware.
Called striated muscle because when viewed under a microscope looks of light and dark lines criss-cross along the transverse muscle fibers. Therefore, another name of striated muscle is transversely striped muscle.
Striated muscle contraction is rapid when receiving stimulation, contracting in accordance with the will and under the influence of nerve sadar.Fungsi striated muscle to move the bones and protect the skeleton from the crunch.
Fig. Striated muscle fiber
(From the muscle of children).
3. Muscle tissue heart / myocardium Muscle tissue is found only in the middle layer of the heart wall. The structure resembles a striated muscle, cardiac muscle contraction although so reflexively and slow reactions to stimuli.
Heart muscle function is to pump blood out of the heart.
Fig. Cardiac muscle fibers
(From the adult heart)
1.4. Neural Networks Neural network composed of nerve cells or neurons. Each neuron / nerve cell consists of nerve cell bodies, dendrites and branches of axon branches, these branches connecting each nerve cells to form neural tissue.
Fig. Nerve cells (neurons) with axons and dendrites).
There are 3 kinds of nerve cells a. Sensory nerve cells, functioning to deliver stimulation of the receptor (receiving stimuli) to the spinal cord.
b. Motor nerve cells, motor function delivers impulses from CNS to effectors.
c. Liaison nerve cells, nerve cells is a liaison with one nerve cell to another.
Nerve cells have the ability to irritability and conductivity. Irritability means the ability of nerve cells to react to environmental changes. Conductivity means that the ability of nerve cells to carry nerve impulses.
1.5. Network Reinforcement
Amplifier network is also called network advocate or support network.
Which includes the amplifier network is:
1. Tie Network
Connective tissue consists of fibers, cells and extra cellular fluid. Fluid-called extra cellular matrix and fibers.
The function of the connective tissue is a binding or uniting tissues into organs and various organs into organ systems, the veil protects organs and tissues or organs.
Based on the structure and function of connective tissue can be divided into two:
a. Loose connective tissue
Characteristics: the cells are rare and most of its network composed of a matrix containing collagen fibers and elastic fibers. There is a loose connective tissue around the organs, blood vessels and nerves.
Its function is to wrap the body's organs, blood vessels and nerves.
b. Dense connective tissue
Other names of white fibers of connective tissue, because it is made of collagen fibers that are white. This network is present in muscle membrane, the membrane covering the muscles, fascia, ligaments and tendons.
Fascia is the connective tissue that surrounds the flat muscles.
Ligaments are connective tissue that acts as a liaison between the bones.
Tendons are muscle ends are attached to the bone. Its function is to link the various organs of the body such as muscles with the bones, bone by bone, also provide protection to the organs.
2. Cartilage tissue (cartilage)
Cartilage tissue in children derived from embryonic tissue called mesenchyme, in adults derived from cartilage or membrane that contains a lot perikondrium forming chondroblasts or cartilage cells. Its function is to support the body frame.
There are 3 types of cartilage tissue:
a. Hyaline cartilage
The matrix is clear blue. There on the surface of bone joints, rings of cartilage in the trachea and the branches of the trachea, the tip of the ribs attached to the sternum and at the end of long bones.
Hyaline cartilage is the largest part of the embryo skeleton are also helping the movement of joints, strengthens the respiratory tract, giving the possibility of longitudinal bone growth in the pipe and gives the possibility of moving the rib cage during breathing.
Fig. Hyaline cartilage (from embryonic pig).
b. Fibrous cartilage The matrix is dark and cloudy. This network contained in the bonding of certain ligaments to bones, joints pubic bone, on calmam between the vertebrae and the linkage between the left and right pubic bone. The main function to provide protection and advocate.
Fig. Fibrous cartilage(Of human knee bone).
c. Elastic cartilage Matrix cloudy yellowish color. This network contained in the dawn's ear, epiglottis, and larynx eustakius vessels.
3. Bone tissue
Bone tissue consists of bone cells or osteon stored in the matrix, the matrix is composed of collagen and deposition gluten mineral salts, especially salts of calcium (lime). Bone is a major component of the framework of the body and serves to protect organs and the skeletal muscles attach.
Bone can be divided into 2 types:
a. Hard bone, bone matrix when meeting and padat.Contoh: bone pipe.
b. Spongy bone, when the matrix is berongga.Contoh: short bone.
4. Blood Network
Blood network is a network of special advocates, as a liquid.
The parts of the network of blood are:
a. Blood cells, divided into red blood cells (erythrocytes) serves to carry oxygen and white blood cell (leukocyte) function to resist foreign objects that enter the body.
b. The fragments of blood (platelets), Functioning in the process of blood clotting.
c. Blood plasma, the largest component is water, carries nutrients, hormones, substances remaining after metabolisms, antibodies and others.
5. Lymph tissue / lymph nodes
Originally lymph tissue is part of the blood coming out of the blood vessels, its largest component is water in which dissolved substances such as glucose, salts, fatty acids. Cell components are lymphocytes.
Network nodes spread throughout the body via lymph vessels. The function of lymph tissue in addition to the immune system (the lymphocytes) was also to transport tissue fluid, proteins, fats, mineral salts and other substances from the tissues into the blood vessel system.
1.6. Fat tissue
Another name is adipose tissue, these tissues are found all over the body. Its function is to store fat for food reserves, and prevent excessive heat loss.
1.7. Organ
A collection of various kinds of tissue and perform a certain task will form the organ. The degree of diversity of organisms is determined from the organ owned.
Several organs
1. GUT
Is part of the digestive system.
Compiled from several networks, the structure from outside to inside are:
a. Serous connective tissue, its function is to hang the intestine to other organs
b. Longitudinal smooth muscle tissue
c. Circular smooth muscle tissue
d. Loose connective tissue
e. Mucosal smooth muscle tissue
f. Loose connective tissue mucosa
g. Cylindrical epithelial tissue which is the deepest tissue of the gut cavity
In addition to the networks mentioned above there are also other tissues (nerve tissue, blood tissue, etc.) that support the intestines work.
2. Trachea / STEM THROAT
Is part of the respiratory system.
Trachea composed of 3 layers of tissue, from the outside in:
a. Dense connective tissue
b. Rulang cartilage tissue and smooth muscle tissue
c. Network cylindrical multilayer ciliated epithelium
ORGAN SYSTEM
A collection of various organs and perform a particular task is called organ systems.
Organ systems found in the human body, among others
1. Integumentary system / LEATHER
2. DIGESTION SYSTEM
3. CIRCULATION SYSTEM
4. Respiratory system / BREATH
5. Excretion SYSTEM
6. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
7. SYSTEM FRAMEWORK
8. MUSCLE SYSTEM
9. NERVOUS SYSTEM
10. HORMONE SYSTEM
CHAPTER II. PLANT STRUCTURE
As in the animal, plant body was composed of cells. The cells will be assembled to form a network, the network will come together to form organs and so on up to form one plant. Here are discussed the various tissues and organs that form the plant body. Plant tissue can be divided into 2 types:
1. Meristem
2. Adult Networks
2.1. Meristem Network
Meristem is a continuous network membelah.Jaringan meristem can be divided into 2 types
1. Primary Meristem Network
Meristem which is a further development of embryo growth. Example: The end of the stem, root tip. Meristem located at the tip of the stem and root tips called apical meristem.
Meristem activity primary cause stem and root length bertambang.
Primary Meristem growth is called primary growth.
2. Secondary Meristem Network
Secondary meristem meristem tissue derived from adult tissues of cambium and cork cambium. Secondary Meristem growth is called secondary growth. Meristem activities cause substantial increase plant body.
2.2. Adult Networks
Adult Network is a network that has stopped membelah.Jaringan adults can be divided into several kinds:
1 Network epidermis
Network which is located at the outside, covering the surface of the plant body. Form a variety of epidermal tissues. In plants which have had a secondary growth, root and stem have largely lost the epidermal tissue. Epidermal tissue functions to protect the network on the inside.
2. Parenchymal tissue
Another name is the basic network. Parenchyma tissue found in the bark, root bark, flesh, leaf, fruit flesh and endosperm. Parenchymal cell shape manifold. Tues parenchyma containing chlorophyll called klorenkim, which contain air cavities called aerenkim. Storage reserves of food and water by the plant's body carried out by parenchymal tissue.
3. Network Reinforcement / advocates
Other Name stereon. Its function is to strengthen the parts of a plant. Consisting of kolenkim and sklerenkim.
a. Kolenkim
Most of the cell wall consists of compounds kolenkim network is a network of cellulose reinforcement in young organs or soft parts of a plant.
b. Sklerenkim
In addition to the cell wall containing cellulose, lignin compounds containing sklerenkim network, so that the cells become stronger and harder. Sklerenkim consists of two kinds of fiber / fiber and sklereid or stone cells. Coconut shells are good examples of parts of a plant that contains fiber and sklereid.
4. Carrier Network
Transport network carries substances needed by plants. There are 2 kinds of tissues, ie xylem or phloem vessels or vessels of wood and plywood / bark vessels.
Xylem carries water and dissolved mineral salts from the root to all parts of a plant. Xylem there are 2 kinds: the trachea and tracheid.
Phloem carries the result of photosynthesis from leaves to all parts of a plant.
5. Network Cork
Cork tissue function is to protect other networks so as not to lose a lot of water, given the cork cells that are waterproof. In dicots, the network formed by the cork cambium cork or felogen, the formation of cork tissue to the inside of living cells called feloderm, outward form of dead cells called felem.
PLANT ORGAN
2.3. Root
Seed plant organ that is important is 3, namely: roots, stems, leaves.
Who's the other parts of these organs is a modification, eg modifications tuber roots, flowers modification of twigs and leaves.
Root is the root origin of the institution (radix), in dicots, the root of the institution continues to grow so as to form the roots of riding, in monocots, the root of dead bodies, then at the base of the stem will grow roots that have a similar size that form the root fibers.
The roots of monocots and dicots root tip is protected by a hood or kaliptra, whose function is to protect the root tip when penetrating the soil, there kaliptra cells containing beads of Amylum, called kolumela.
1. Root Function
a. To anchor the plant in the soil body
b. Can serve to store food reserves
c. Absorb water dam mineral salts dissolved
2. Root Anatomy
In young roots when it's done cross-section will look the parts from outside to inside.
a. Epidermal
b. Cortex
c. Endodermis
d. Cylinder Head / Stele
a. Epidermal
The composition of the cells meeting and thick single layer of cells, easily pass the cell wall of water. Root hairs is a modification of the root epidermal cells, is responsible for absorbing water and dissolved mineral salts, root hairs extending root surface.
b. Cortex
It lies directly beneath the epidermis, the cells are not arranged a meeting so many have a space between cells. Most are built by parenchymal tissue.
c. Endodermis
Is a separator layer between the cortex by the central cylinder. Endodermis cells can undergo thickening agent cork on the walls and formed like dots, called point Caspary. In the subsequent growth of thickening agents on the cork until the cell wall facing the central cylinder, when examined under a microscope would look like hutuf U, called U-cells, so that water can not go to the central cylinder. But not all endodermis cells have thickened, allowing water to enter the central cylinder. The cells are called cell router / cell impregnation.
d.Silinder Center / Stele
Cylinder head / Stele is the deepest part of the root.
Consisting of various kinds of networks:
- Persikel / Perikambium, is the outermost layer of the Stele. Branch roots formed from the growth persikel outwards.
- File Tubes Transport / Vasis, consists of xylem and phloem are arranged alternately in the direction of the toes. In dicotyledonous between xylem and phloem cambium tissue there.
- Core, located at least within or between beam transport vessels consists of parenchymal tissue.
2. 4. Stem
There is a difference between dicotyledonous and monocot stem anatomy in the composition.
1. Dicotyledonous stem
In dicotyledonous stems are the layers from the outside in:
a. Epidermal
Consisting of a compact cell membranes, has no space between cells. The function of the epidermis to protect the underlying tissues. On the stem secondary growth, the epidermal layer was replaced by a layer of cork cambium formed from cork.
b. Cortex
Stem cortex is also called first shell, consisting of several layers of cells, which is close to the epidermal layer is composed of kolenkim network, composed of increasingly into the parenchymal tissue.
c. Endodermis
Endodermis rod also called skin deep, composed of a layer of cells, a layer of separation between the cortex with the Stele. Endodermis Anguiospermae plants contain starch, but not found in gymnosperms plant endodermis.
d. Stele / Cylinder Head
It is the deepest layer of the stem. Outermost layers of the Stele called perisikel or perikambium. Stele Institute of vessels on the type of collateral, called xylem and phloem meaning. The location of each side by side, next to the xylem and phloem of the outer.
Between xylem and phloem cambium intravasikuler there, on the subsequent development of parenchymal tissue contained between the beam transport vessels are also turned into cambium, called the cambium intervasikuler. Both of them can hold a secondary growth which resulted in increase of trunk diameter.
In dicotyledonous plants, woody hard, and his chronic, secondary thickening growth is not continuous, but only when water and nutrients is enough, while the dry season so that growth does not occur on the trunk appear thickened growth layers, each layer shows growth activity for one year, layer upon layer of the circle is called the Circle of the Year.
2. Monocot stem
In monocot stems, the epidermis consists of a single cell layer, the boundary between the cortex and the Stele generally unclear. In Stele monocots have vascular bundles that spread and type of collateral, which means that closed between xylem and phloem cambium was not found. The absence of cambium in monocots monocotyledon not cause the stem to grow bigger, in other words there is no secondary thickening growth. However, there are monocots which can hold the secondary thickening growth, for example on HANJUANG tree (Cordyline sp) and pineapple trees across (Agave sp.)
2.5. Leaf
Leaf is a modification of the stem, the plant is part of the body's most lots contain chlorophyll, so photosynthesis activity most widely held in the leaf.
Anatomy of the leaf can be divided into 3 parts:
1. Epidermal
The epidermis is the outermost layer of leaves, there are upper epidermis and lower epidermis, to prevent the evaporation that is too large, the epidermis layer is coated by a layer of cuticle. In the epidermis there
Stoma / leaf mouth, stoma useful to the site of a gas exchange to and from outside the body of plants.
2. Parenchyma / mesophyll
Leaf parenchyma consists of 2 layers of cells, the palisade (fence networks) and sponge (sponge tissue), both containing kloroplast. Rail network cells are tightly sponge tissue cells rather tenuous, so there are spaces between cells. Photosynthetic activity is more active on the fence because kloroplastnya network more than the sponge tissue.
3. Tubes Networks
Leaf vascular tissue is a continuation of the stem tissue, bone contained in the leaves and leaf veins.
Fig. Leaf tissue.
CHAPTER III. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
GROWTH is a process of accretion or organism cell size. This growth is quantitative / measurable. GROWTH is a process towards maturity in the organism. This process qualitatively.
Both the growth or development is irreversible.
3.1. Growth In Plants
In general, growth and developments in plant begins to zygote stage, which is fertilized with male female sex cells. Cleavage zygote produces Meristem which will continue to divide and experience differentiation.
Differentiation is the change of state of some cells, forming organs and structures have different functions.
There are 2 kinds of growth, namely:
1. Primary Growth
Occur as a result of cell division of primary meristem tissue cells. Take place in the embryo, the ends of plants such as roots and stems.
The embryo has three important parts:
a. embryonic shoots of candidate stem and leaf
b. namely embryonic root root candidate
c. cotyledons of food reserves
Fig. Embryo Plants
Regional growth in roots and stems tcrbagi based activities into 3 regions
a. Cleavage region, cells actively dividing in this area (meristematik)
b. Elongation region, Being in the back of the division
c. Regional differentiation, the rear portion of the growth area. The cells had differentiated to form the true roots and young leaves and axillary buds that will become a branch.
2. Secondary Growth
Is the activity of secondary meristem cells of cambium and cork cambium. This growth was found in dicotyledonous plants, gymnosperms and causes enlargement of the size (diameter) tumubuhan.
- At first cambium present only in vascular bundles, called cambium or cambium vasis intravasikuler. Its function is to form the primary xylem and phloem.
- Next parenchyma root / trunk located between vascular bundles, the cambium, called cambium intervasis.
- Cambium intravasis and intervasis Þ form a circle of concentric shapes.
Cambium located next to the skin tissue that serves as protector. Arises from an imbalance between xylem and phloem permbentukan faster than the growth of the skin.
- Into a form feloderm: living cells
- Out the form felem: dead cells
Fig. Circle years because the activity of the secondary xylem
3.2. Factors Affecting Growth And Development
A. External Factors
1. Water and Mineral 2 effect on canopy growth of roots. Differentiation of one or more nutrients will inhibit or cause abnormal growth.
2. Humidity.
3. Þ temperature of which affect the action of the enzyme. The ideal temperature required for growth is best to be the optimum temperature, different for each type of plant.
4. Þ of light affects photosynthesis. In general, an inhibiting factor. Etiolasi is growing very fast in a dark place
Fotoperiodisme is the response of plants to light intensity and length of irradiation.
B. Factor In
1. Heredity factors.
2. Hormones.
a. Auxin
is the compound indole acetic acid (IAA) produced at the end of the apical meristem (root tip and stem). FW Went (1928) first discovered the auxin at the end of Avena sativa coleoptile wheat seedling.
- Assist germination
- Apical dominance
b. Gibberellin
These compounds produced by fungi or Fusarium fujikuroi Giberella moniliformae, discovered by F. Kurusawa.
Gibberellin Function:
- Elongation of plant
- Role in partenokarpi
c. Cytokinin
First discovered in tobacco. These hormones stimulate cell division.
d. Ethylene gas
Many are found in an old fruit
e. Acid absiat
f. Florigen
g. Kalin
Growth hormone organ, comprising:
- Rhizokalin
- Kaulokali
- Filokalin
- Antokalin
h. Traumalin acid or wound cambium
Stimulate cell division in the area of injury as a mechanism to cover the wound
Fig. a. Distribution of Auxin on Sprout
Fig. b. Growth Edge and Edge Stem Roots
3.3. Growth In Animals Growth in animals were divided into 2 phases, namely:
1. Embryonic phase
Is the growth phase of the zygote to embryo formation. This phase includes several steps.
a. Phase division (cleavage) and Blastulasi,
Cleavage zygote divides (mitosis) into many blastomeres. Blastomeres together form such as strawberries called Morula
Morula has 2 poles, namely:
* Animal pole (animal pole)
* Pole plant (vegetal pole)
Blastulasi morula cells to divide and "strawberry" morula form a cavity (blastocoel) containing water, called a blastula.
b. Gastrulation, is the process of change blastula to gastrula stage.
In this phase:
o blastocoel deflate or even disappear
o blastopole formed hole will develop into anal
o formed space, namely gastrocoel (Archenteron) develops into the digestive tract
o formed three embryonic layers: ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm
Based on the number of embryonic layers, animals are grouped into:
Animals diploblastik: has 2 layers of embryonic, ectoderm and endoderm
Animals Triploblastik: a third layer of embryonic
* Triploblastik aselomata: no body cavity
* Triploblastik pseudoselomata: having a pseudo-body cavity
* Triploblastik selomata: a true body cavity, which is the result of folding of mesoderm
c. Morphogenesis
The process of growth, development and differentiation into organ systems, organs and organisms.
d. Differentiation and Specialization Network
Differentiation tissue / embryonic layer will develop into various organs and organ systems.
Specialization every network will have the form, structure and function of each.
e. The impact of embryonic
Differentiation of an embryonic layer affects and is affected by the differentiation of other embryonic layers.
2. Post-embryonic phase
Generally includes metamorphosis and regeneration.
Metamorphosis is the change in shape in stages from youth Þ adult animal.
a. Insect
Incomplete metamorphosis: egg nymph imago.
Metamorphosis: egg larva pupae imago.
b. Frog
Zygote tadpoles frog young adult frog.
Regeneration is the ability to repair cells, tissues or body parts are damaged, missing or dead.
- Higher animals is limited to network
- lower animals to arrive at the organ level
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